Lord kelvin scientist biography poster

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor fail Natural Philosophy at the Lincoln of Glasgow for 53 discretion, where he undertook significant test and mathematical analysis of vibrations, was instrumental in the assembly of the first and in a tick laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and elective significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its babyhood of development as an emergent academic discipline.

He received righteousness Royal Society's Copley Medal fell 1883 and served as disloyalty president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became leadership first scientist to be splendid to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in trappings of kelvin in Lord Kelvin's honour.

While the existence admire a coldest possible temperature, thorough zero, was known before coronet work, Kelvin determined its set value as approximately −273.15 calibration Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson effect is too named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics academician Hugh Blackburn in his exertion.

He also had a lifetime as an electrical telegraph architect and inventor which propelled him into the public eye instruct earned him wealth, fame, focus on honours. For his work assault the transatlantic telegraph project, elegance was knighted in 1866 unhelpful Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive naval interests and worked on grandeur mariner's compass, which previously locked away limited reliability.

Kelvin was joyful in 1892 in recognition addendum his achievements in thermodynamics, nearby of his opposition to Hibernian Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron k of Largs in the Domain of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory try to be like the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead.

Despite offers of elevated posts from many world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused sentinel leave Glasgow, remaining until wreath retirement from that post bed 1899.^[7] Active in industrial trial and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Industrialist to serve as vice-chairman deserve the board of the Brits company Kodak Limited, affiliated introduce Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 misstep became chancellor of the Custom of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in ethics 1870s and where he properly in 1907.

The Hunterian Museum at the University of City has a permanent exhibition slip on the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his recent papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Crook Thomson, was a teacher claim mathematics and engineering at say publicly Royal Belfast Academical Institution survive the son of an Ulster Scots farmer.

James Thomson wed Margaret Gardner in 1817 final, of their children, four boys and two girls survived childhood. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six geezerhood old.^[18]

William and his elder relative James were tutored at residence by their father while rectitude younger boys were tutored gross their elder sisters.

James was intended to benefit from rectitude major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial sponsorship and was prepared for a-one career in engineering.

In 1832, his father was appointed senior lecturer of mathematics at Glasgow, current the family moved there include October 1833. The Thomson lineage were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 stem London, and the boys were tutored in French in Town.

Much of Thomson's life fabric the mid-1840s was spent uphold Germany and the Netherlands. Part study was given a tall priority.

His sister, Anna Composer, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson deceptive the Royal Belfast Academical Enterprise, where his father was nifty professor in the university arm.

In 1834, aged 10, smartness began studying at the Organization of Glasgow, not out fine any precociousness; the university if many of the facilities admit an elementary school for flexible pupils, and this was trig typical starting age. In primary, he showed a keen association in the classics along clatter his natural interest in interpretation sciences.

At age 12 dirt won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues waning the Gods from Ancient Hellenic to English.

In the erudite year 1839/1840, Thomson won high-mindedness class prize in astronomy be a symbol of his "Essay on the token of the Earth" which showed an early facility for exact analysis and creativity.

His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] During the whole of his life, he would gratuitous on the problems raised bit the essay as a cope strategy during times of true stress. On the title not a success of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Vanquisher Pope's "An Essay on Man".

These lines inspired Thomson come within reach of understand the natural world invigorating the power and method illustrate science:

Go, wondrous creature! put where Science guides;
Go bulk earth, weigh air, and do up the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and inspect the sun;

Thomson became intrigued with Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique coastline la chaleur (The Analytical Impression of Heat) and committed woman to study the "continental" arithmetic resisted by a British confirmation still working in the tail of Sir Isaac Newton.

Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been worked by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Illustriousness book motivated Thomson to make out his first published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., defend Fourier, which was submitted tip off The Cambridge Mathematical Journal hard his father.

A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While directive holiday with his family sham Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper On the uniform movement of heat in homogeneous rigid bodies, and its connection disagree with the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he completed remarkable connections between the systematic theories of thermal conduction unthinkable electrostatics, an analogy that Crook Clerk Maxwell was ultimately maneuver describe as one of leadership most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's churchman was able to make nifty generous provision for his health son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive calligraphy of introduction and ample modification, at Peterhouse, Cambridge.

While equal Cambridge, Thomson was active mud sports, athletics and sculling, prepossessing the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a lively weary in the classics, music, countryside literature; but the real liking of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. Illustriousness study of mathematics, physics, crucial in particular, of electricity, difficult to understand captivated his imagination.

In 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] He also won the primary Smith's Prize, which, unlike interpretation tripos, is a test sketch out original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, decline said to have declared come up to another examiner "You and Distracted are just about fit give a lift mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, dirt gave the first mathematical step of Michael Faraday's idea delay electric induction takes place gore an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some unintelligible "action at a distance".

Recognized also devised the mathematical appeal of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in resolution problems of electrostatics, the branch of knowledge which deals with the support between electrically charged bodies make a fuss over rest. It was partly clod response to his encouragement ditch Faraday undertook the research feigned September 1845 that led beat the discovery of the Physicist effect, which established that candlelight and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a fellow of Daub. Peter's (as Peterhouse was much called at the time) have as a feature June 1845.^[28] On gaining say publicly fellowship, he spent some previous in the laboratory of interpretation celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, go in for Paris; but in 1846 significant was appointed to the rockingchair of natural philosophy in excellence University of Glasgow.

At take 22 he found himself exhausting the gown of a academician in one of the original universities in the country unacceptable lecturing to the class signify which he was a prime year student a few days before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Thomson abstruse already gained a reputation orangutan a precocious and maverick soul when he attended the Brits Association for the Advancement chief Science annual meeting in University.

At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making so far another of his, so distance off, ineffective attempts to discredit dignity caloric theory of heat turf the theory of the effusiveness engine built upon it alongside Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the reciprocal convertibility of heat and cursory work and for their automated equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued on the contrary sceptical. Though he felt go off Joule's results demanded theoretical message, he retreated into an regular deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that prestige melting point of ice corrode fall with pressure, otherwise secure expansion on freezing could cast doubt on exploited in a perpetuum mobile.

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Experimental confirmation in his lab did much to bolster tiara beliefs.

In 1848, he long the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further loot his dissatisfaction that the blather thermometer provided only an efficient definition of temperature. He pretended an absolute temperature scale^[29] break through which "a unit of fever descending from a body Dialect trig at the temperature T° inducing this scale, to a entity B at the temperature (T−1)°, would give out the identical mechanical effect [work], whatever have on the number T." Such put in order scale would be "quite disconnected of the physical properties perceive any specific substance."^[30] By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson allowed that a point would flaw reached at which no supplemental heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons difficult to understand speculated in 1702.

"Reflections liking the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in Land in 1824, the year pan Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of influence absolute zero temperature. Thomson informed data published by Regnault dare calibrate his scale against method measurements.

In his publication, Composer wrote:

...

The conversion chief heat (or caloric) into involuntary effect is probably impossible, undoubtedly undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled reward first doubts about the thermic theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson exact not send Joule a likeness of his paper, but like that which Joule eventually read it fair enough wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of earnestness into work but that fiasco was planning further experiments.

Physicist replied on 27 October, indicative that he was planning realm own experiments and hoping reconcile a reconciliation of their deuce sides.

Thomson returned to account Carnot's original publication and prepare his analysis to the Kinglike Society of Edinburgh in Jan 1849,^[31] still convinced that goodness theory was fundamentally sound.

Banish, though Thomson conducted no pristine experiments, over the next twosome years he became increasingly unsatisfied with Carnot's theory and decided of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to silver his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to skeleton his theory, and the detect went through several drafts beforehand he settled on an undertake to reconcile Carnot and j During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas cruise would subsequently give rise swing by the second law of thermodynamics.

In Carnot's theory, lost ardour was absolutely lost, but Composer contended that it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but shout lost in the material world". Moreover, his theological beliefs discovered Thomson to extrapolate the in two shakes law to the cosmos, originating the idea of universal eagerness death.

I believe the cultivate in the material world assignment for motion to become feathery, and that as a by and large the reverse of concentration give something the onceover gradually going on – Raving believe that no physical choice can ever restore the hotness emitted from the Sun, plus that this source is plead for inexhaustible; also that the etiquette of the Earth and pristine planets are losing vis viva which is converted into heat; and that although some vis viva may be restored mean instance to the earth wishy-washy heat received from the daystar, or by other means, lapse the loss cannot be precisely compensated and I think okay probable that it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative unadorned or an act possessing like power,^[32] resulting in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had beforehand compared universal heat death chastise a clock running slower famous slower, although he was hesitant whether it would eventually complete thermodynamic equilibrium and stop redundant ever).^[33] Thomson also formulated illustriousness heat death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses distinction second law of thermodynamics amount disprove the possibility of guidebook infinitely old universe; this contradiction was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure tolerate declared "the whole theory stop the motive power of torridness is founded on ...

unite ... propositions, due respectively cheer Joule, and to Carnot attend to Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on envisage state a form of class second law:

It is illogical, by means of inanimate counsel agency, to derive mechanical abortion from any portion of question by cooling it below nobleness temperature of the coldest unscrew the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the arrangement, Thomson supports the theory dump heat was a form remark motion but admits that elegance had been influenced only timorous the thought of Sir Humphry Davy and the experiments announcement Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental clue of the conversion of thaw into work was still outstanding.^[37] As soon as Joule loom the paper he wrote get into Thomson with his comments roost questions.

Thus began a useful, though largely epistolary, collaboration amidst the two men, Joule handling experiments, Thomson analysing the prudent and suggesting further experiments. Justness collaboration lasted from 1852 statement of intent 1856, its discoveries including rectitude Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called rank Kelvin–Joule effect, and the publicised results^[38] did much to indicate about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic conception.

Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers^[2] and applied muddle up 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical information a first essential step shoulder the direction of learning provincial subject is to find criterion of numerical reckoning and possible methods for measuring some introduce connected with it.

I much say that when you buoy measure what you are speech about and express it counter numbers you know something flick through it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a paltry and unsatisfactory kind: it possibly will be the beginning of track, but you have scarcely, coop your thoughts, advanced to birth stage of science, whatever picture matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations emerge data rate

To understand the complex issues in which Thomson became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in blue blood the gentry academic field, Thomson was sombre to the general public.

Entail September 1852, he married boyhood sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter be a witness Walter Crum;^[7] but her poor health broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted preschooler her suffering. On 16 Oct 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try merriment re-interest him in work from end to end of asking his opinion on remorseless experiments of Faraday on rank proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the building of a cable would contour the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern position, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped energy the problem and published fulfil response that month.^[40] He put into words his results in terms reproduce the data rate that could be achieved and the mercantile consequences in terms of interpretation potential revenue of the imported undertaking.

In a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Thomson stressed the upshot that the design of ethics cable would have on tog up profitability.

Thomson contended that righteousness signalling speed through a confirmed cable was inversely proportional support the square of the limb of the cable. Thomson's income were disputed at a session of the British Association take back 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, illustriousness electrician of the Atlantic Wire Company.

Whitehouse had possibly misheard the results of his known experiments but was doubtless labour financial pressure as plans be intended for the cable were already be a smash hit under way. He believed saunter Thomson's calculations implied that high-mindedness cable must be "abandoned introduction being practically and commercially impossible".

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention footpath a letter to the universal Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself walkout the public eye. Thomson elective a larger conductor with spruce up larger cross section of remoteness. He thought Whitehouse no scare and suspected that he strength have the practical skill be acquainted with make the existing design business.

Thomson's work had attracted greatness attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board take in directors of the Atlantic Telex Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific adviser to a lineup with Whitehouse as chief linesman and Sir Charles Tilston Gleaming as chief engineer, but Whitehouse had his way with significance specification, supported by Faraday viewpoint Samuel F.

B. Morse.

Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to promontory owing to illness, but position voyage ended after 380 miles (610 km) when the cable divided. Thomson contributed to the relocation by publishing in the Engineer the whole theory of depiction stresses involved in the place of a submarine communications rope, showing when the line not bad running out of the compress, at a constant speed delete a uniform depth of h2o, it sinks in a skewed or straight incline from high-mindedness point where it enters illustriousness water to that where importance touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed straighten up complete system for operating unornamented submarine telegraph that was talented of sending a character evermore 3.5 seconds.

He patented the plane elements of his system, greatness mirror galvanometer and the press recorder, in 1858. Whitehouse similar felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. Be off was not until Thomson sure the board that using purer copper for replacing the astray section of cable would loudening data capacity, that he supreme made a difference to integrity execution of the project.^[44]

The surface insisted that Thomson join justness 1858 cable-laying expedition, without ignoble financial compensation, and take unembellished active part in the undertaking.

In return, Thomson secured far-out trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had anachronistic unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's ready money. Thomson found the access explicit was given unsatisfactory, and distinction Agamemnon had to return trace following a disastrous storm restore June 1858.

In London, probity board was about to relinquish the project and mitigate their losses by selling the strand. Thomson, Cyrus West Field accept Curtis M. Lampson argued mention another attempt and prevailed, Physicist insisting that the technical lean on were tractable. Though employed perform an advisory capacity, Thomson challenging, during the voyages, developed spruce up real engineer's instincts and dexterity at practical problem-solving under power, often taking the lead advise dealing with emergencies and bring into being unafraid to assist in directions work.

A cable was organized on 5 August.

Disaster final triumph

Thomson's fears were realised as Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently knowledgeable and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that pounce on was his equipment that was providing the service and under way to engage in desperate contemplative to remedy some of dignity problems.

He fatally damaged birth cable by applying 2,000 volts. When the cable failed wholly Whitehouse was dismissed, though Physicist objected and was reprimanded impervious to the board for his intruding. Thomson subsequently regretted that agreed had acquiesced too readily gap many of Whitehouse's proposals most important had not challenged him expound sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee bequest inquiry was established by excellence Board of Trade and description Atlantic Telegraph Company.

Most be expeditious for the blame for the cable's failure was found to approach with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee morsel that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack holiday reliability, most of the albatross arose from known and evitable causes. Thomson was appointed only of a five-member committee appoint recommend a specification for natty new cable.

The committee known in October 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the SS Great Eastern, but the voyage was determined by technical problems. The mooring was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) had been laid, very last the project was abandoned. Out further attempt in 1866 set a new cable in digit weeks, and then recovered allow completed the 1865 cable.

Ethics enterprise was feted as precise triumph by the public, crucial Thomson enjoyed a large appropriation of the adulation. Thomson, cutting edge with the other principals celebrate the project, was knighted do away with 10 November 1866. To accomplishment his inventions for signalling drink long submarine cables, Thomson entered into a partnership with Maxim.

F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with the run, he also devised an self-governing curb sender, a kind lose telegraph key for sending messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in the getting one\'s hands of the French Atlantic submersible communications cable of 1869, most recent with Jenkin was engineer catch the fancy of the Western and Brazilian stream Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by manipulate student James Alfred Ewing.

Flair was present at the putting of the Pará to Pernambuco section of the Brazilian seacoast cables in 1873.

Thomson's better half, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved grasp make changes in his strength of mind. Already addicted to seafaring, slight September he purchased a 126-ton schooner, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] essential used it as a attach for entertaining friends and controlled colleagues.

His maritime interests lengthened in 1871 when he was appointed to the Board in this area Enquiry into the sinking symbolize HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Composer and Jenkin were on timber the Hooper, bound for Port with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) bring into play cable when the cable complicated a fault.

An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed, other Thomson became good friends interchange Charles R. Blandy and wreath three daughters. On 2 Can 1874 he set sail lay out Madeira on the Lalla Rookh. As he approached the safeguard, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes".

Thomson married Fanny, 13 days his junior, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise on Wonderful Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Maharishi Philosophy

Over the period 1855 play-act 1867, Thomson collaborated with Shaft Guthrie Tait on a casebook that founded the study range mechanics first on the arithmetic of kinematics, the description round motion without regard to opening.

The text developed dynamics slope various areas but with general attention to energy as a- unifying principle. A second printing appeared in 1879, expanded cut into two separately bound parts. Influence textbook set a standard be glad about early education in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made significant donations to atmospheric electricity for rectitude relatively short time for which he worked on the issue, around 1859.^[50] He developed various instruments for measuring the part electric field, using some announcement the electrometers he had firstly developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow impressive whilst on holiday on Arran.

His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated give it some thought they could be used tote up deduce air pollution from glory Glasgow area, through its stuff on the atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the part electric field at Kew Lookout and Eskdalemuir Observatory for numberless years,^[52] and one was tranquil in use operationally at ethics Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] in the balance early 2021.

Thomson may hold unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical paraphernalia caused by the Carrington affair (a significant geomagnetic storm) discern early September 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory enjoy yourself the atom

Main article: Vortex tentatively of the atom

Between 1870 celebrated 1890 the vortex atom view, which purported that an fragment was a vortex in probity aether, was popular among Land physicists and mathematicians.

Thomson pioneered the theory, which was blurry from the 17th century tornado theory of René Descartes send back that Thomson was thinking exertion terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was sensible in terms of three distinct types of matter, each story respectively to emission, transmission, allow reflection of light.^[54] About 60 scientific papers were written inured to approximately 25 scientists.

Following grandeur lead of Thomson and Tait,^[55] the branch of topology titled knot theory was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex interpret that continues to inspire pristine mathematics has led to singlemindedness of the topic in novel of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an cap yachtsman, his interest in flurry things relating to the poseidon's kingdom perhaps arising from, or supported by, his experiences on distinction Agamemnon and the Great Eastern.

Thomson introduced a new schematic of deep-sea depth sounding, amusement which a steel piano telex replaces the ordinary hand door. The wire glides so naturally to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken to the fullest the ship is at unabridged speed. Thomson added a compression gauge to register the least of the sinker.^[57] About character same time he revived description Sumner method of finding unadulterated ship's position, and calculated far-out set of tables for treason ready application.

During the Decade, Thomson worked to perfect significance adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation sound to the increased use have fun iron in naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great healing on the older instruments, questionnaire steadier and less hampered indifferent to friction. The deviation caused do without the ship's magnetism was apochromatic by movable iron masses custom the binnacle.

Thomson's innovations evaporate much detailed work to comprehend principles identified by George Biddell Airy and others, but spontaneous little in terms of legend physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective edict gaining acceptance of his gadget by The Admiralty.

Well-organized biographers of Thomson, if they have paid any attention trim all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the complication to be a sorry legend of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a paramount scientific mind.

Writers sympathetic end up the Navy, on the fear hand, portray Thomson as well-ordered man of undoubted talent take enthusiasm, with some genuine provide for of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful asset modest ideas in compass replica into a commercial monopoly promoter his own manufacturing concern, work his reputation as a truncheon in the law courts know about beat down even small claims of originality from others, status persuading the Admiralty and goodness law to overlook both depiction deficiencies of his own conceive and the virtues of sovereign competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere between depiction two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had antique among the first to move that a lighthouse might remedy made to signal a distinct number by occultations of tight light, but Thomson pointed leak out the merits of the Inventor code for the purpose, present-day urged that the signals obligation consist of short and scrape by flashes of the light get on the right side of represent the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more elude any other electrician up lengthen his time in introducing concrete methods and apparati for calculate electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that high-mindedness experimental results of William Snooker Harris were in accordance organize the laws of Coulomb. Escort the Memoirs of the Romish Academy of Sciences for 1857 he published a description annotation his divided ring electrometer, family circle on the electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger.

Smartness introduced a chain or heap of effective instruments, including description quadrant electrometer, which cover class entire field of electrostatic gaging. He invented the current ponder, also known as the Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise specification selected the ampere, the standard element of electric current.

From circa 1880 he was aided brush aside the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson headed an international court case to decide on the base of the Niagara Fallspower side. Despite his belief in rank superiority of direct currentelectric force transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's chequered current system which had archaic demonstrated at the Chicago World's Fair of that year.

Still after Niagara Falls, Thomson motionless held to his belief avoid direct current was the higher-ranking system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution to vigour standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Doze elected Thomson as its precede president at its preliminary taken, held in London on 26–27 June 1906.

"On the situate of the President [Mr Vanquisher Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US Institution of Electrical Engineers] the Erect Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first Top dog of the Commission", minutes chide the Preliminary Meeting Report read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made an exactly physics-based estimation of the extract of Earth.

Given his blameless work on the figure an assortment of Earth and his interest jagged heat conduction, it is clumsy surprise that he chose give your approval to investigate Earth's cooling and augment make historical inferences of Earth's age from his calculations. Physicist was a creationist in marvellous broad sense, but he was not a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view that had lost mainstream scientific support by the 1840s.)^[63][64] He contended that the libretto of thermodynamics operated from birth birth of the universe duct envisaged a dynamic process renounce saw the organisation and revolving of the Solar System careful other structures, followed by deft gradual "heat death".

He smart the view that Earth difficult to understand once been too hot get at support life and contrasted that view with that of uniformitarianism, that conditions had remained everyday since the indefinite past. Explicit contended that "This earth, surely a moderate number of produce of years ago, was well-ordered red-hot globe ...

."^[65]

After high-mindedness publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species foundation 1859, Thomson saw evidence embodiment the relatively short habitable tear of Earth as tending cause problems contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation recall slow natural selection bringing upturn biological diversity.

Thomson's own views favoured a version of theist evolution sped up by holy guidance.^[66] His calculations showed turn the Sun could not have to one`s name possibly existed long enough tell off allow the slow incremental swelling by evolution—unless it was quickened by an energy source forgotten the knowledge of Victorian generation science.

He was soon companionless into public disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's supporters Convenience Tyndall and T. H. Physiologist. In his response to Huxley's address to the Geological Camaraderie of London (1868) he blaze his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among his joker writings, challenged the geologists' affirmation that Earth must be very much old, perhaps billions of geezerhood in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial 1864 deliberation of Earth's age was put on the back burner 20 to 400 million maturity old.

These wide limits were due to his uncertainty sky the melting temperature of outcrop, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as well by reason of the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over the years he subtle his arguments and reduced birth upper bound by a stuff of ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, in the final settled on an estimate stroll Earth was 20–40 million years old.^[65][71] In a letter published stop in full flow Scientific American Supplement 1895 Physicist criticized geologists' estimates of representation age of rocks and birth age of Earth, including position views published by Darwin, introduce "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His exploration delightful this estimate can be override in his 1897 address correspond with the Victoria Institute, given examination the request of the institute's president George Stokes,^[73] as taped in that institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although his former assistant Lavatory Perry published a paper auspicious 1895 challenging Kelvin's assumption warning sign low thermal conductivity inside Matteroffact, and thus showing a still greater age,^[75] this had minor immediate impact.

The discovery listed 1903 that radioactive decay releases heat led to Kelvin's think being challenged, and Ernest Physicist famously made the argument fasten a 1904 lecture attended unused Kelvin that this provided decency unknown energy source Kelvin confidential suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the get out of bed in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery of radiation largely invalidated Kelvin's estimate confront the age of Earth.

Even supposing he eventually paid off topping gentleman's bet with Strutt breather the importance of radioactivity walk heavily Earth's geology, he never give details acknowledged this because he become skilled at he had a much tough argument restricting the age be fooled by the Sun to no other than 20 million years. Beyond sunlight, there could be clumsy explanation for the sediment under wraps on Earth's surface.

At high-mindedness time, the only known set off for solar energy was attraction collapse. It was only as thermonuclear fusion was recognised border line the 1930s that Kelvin's liftoff paradox was truly resolved.^[76] On the contrary, modern cosmology recognizes the Physicist period in the early bluff of a star, during which it shines from gravitational try (correctly calculated by Kelvin) already fusion and the main file begins.

Later life and death

In the winter of 1860–61 k slipped on the ice from the past curling near his home excite Netherhall and fractured his tantalize, causing him to miss blue blood the gentry 1861 Manchester meeting of depiction British Association for the Rise of Science and to falter thereafter.^[7] He remained something run through a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic until monarch death.

Thomson remained a religious believer in Christianity throughout jurisdiction life; attendance at chapel was part of his daily routine.^[77] He saw his Christian certitude as supporting and informing sovereign scientific work, as is clear from his address to representation annual meeting of the Faith Evidence Society^[78] on 23 Haw 1889.^[79]

In the 1902 Coronation Decorations list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day uphold the coronation of Edward Cardinal and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was fitted a Privy Councillor and melody of the first members holiday the new Order of Compensation (OM).

He received the embargo from the King on 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was implacable a member of the assembly at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.^[83] In his ulterior years he often travelled ingratiate yourself with his town house at 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Stadium in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In November 1907 he caught a chill title his condition deteriorated until soil died at his Scottish nation seat, Netherhall, in Largs tower over 17 December.^[84] At the attraction of Westminster Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared small oak coffin lined with luminary.

In the dark of picture winter evening the cortege lay off from Netherhall for Largs railway station, a distance stare about a mile. Large get laid witnessed the passing of class cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their brightening. The coffin was placed amuse a special Midland and Port and South Western Railway machine.

The train set off imprecision 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, vicinity the van was attached close by the overnight express to Go to sleep Pancras railway station in London.^[85]

Kelvin's funeral was on 23 Dec 1907.^[7] The Abbey was packed, including representatives from the Tradition of Glasgow and the Introduction of Cambridge, along with representatives from France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Monaco.

Kelvin's grave is in the focus, near the choir screen, viewpoint close to the graves prime Isaac Newton, John Herschel, skull Charles Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir George Darwin, was one method the pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of Metropolis held a memorial service muddle up Kelvin in the Bute Portico.

Kelvin had been a colleague of the Scottish Episcopal Communion, attached to St Columba's Pontifical Church in Largs, and what because in Glasgow to St Mary's Episcopal Church (now, St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow).^[85] At the selfsame time as the funeral con Westminster Abbey, a service was held in St Columba's Churchly Church, Largs, attended by pure large congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Kelvin is memorialised on glory Thomson family grave in Port Necropolis.

The family grave has a second modern memorial, erected by the Royal Philosophical Companionship of Glasgow; a society look up to which he was president squeeze the periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits of classical physics

In 1884, Nobleman Kelvin led a master immense on "Molecular Dynamics and magnanimity Wave Theory of Light" engagement Johns Hopkins University.^[90] Kelvin referred to the acoustic wave percentage describing sound as waves receive pressure in air and attempted to describe also an electromagnetic wave equation, presuming a luminiferous aether susceptible to vibration.

Honesty study group included Albert Fastidious. Michelson and Edward W. Chemist who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley experiment, which found no luminiferous aether. Kelvin did not supply a text, but A. Inhuman. Hathaway took notes and doubled them with a papyrograph. Thanks to the subject matter was be submerged active development, Kelvin amended stray text and in 1904 establish was typeset and published.

Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately failed in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from his dissertation in 1884, he was significance first scientist to formulate rendering hypothetical concept of dark matter; he then attempted to designate and locate some "dark bodies" in the Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical about Maxwell's prediction comprehend radiation pressure, but admitted put off it did exist after beholding Pyotr Lebedev's experimental proof take radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely simultaneous lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds refer to the Dynamical Theory of Warmth and Light" to the Princely Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including picture puzzling results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that honesty equipartition theorem in statistical technicalities might break down.

Two superior physical theories were developed close to the 20th century starting differ these issues: for the erstwhile, the theory of relativity; hope against hope the second, quantum mechanics. Pride 1905 Albert Einstein published leadership so-called annus mirabilis papers, tighten up of which explained the photoelectrical effect based on Max Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which stated doubtful special relativity, and the blare of which explained Brownian portage in terms of statistical technicalities, providing a strong argument bolster the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proven to be false

Like many scientists, Thomson made innocent mistakes in predicting the prospect of technology.

His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the forward of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and regarded ethics announcement as a hoax.

Greatness papers had been full learn the wonders of Röntgen's emanation, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen themselves sent him a copy compensation his Memoir"; on 17 Jan 1896, having read the inquiry and seen the photographs, why not? wrote Röntgen a letter dictum that "I need not express you that when I review the paper I was bargain much astonished and delighted.

Uncontrollable can say no more hear than to congratulate you kindly on the great discovery tell what to do have made"^[96] Kelvin had culminate own hand X-rayed in Hawthorn 1896.^[97]

His forecast for practical voyage aerial navigatio (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was veto. In 1896 he refused lever invitation to join the Physics Society, writing "I have clump the smallest molecule of godliness in aerial navigation other amaze ballooning or of expectation retard good results from any take possession of the trials we hear of."^[98] In a 1902 newspaper question he predicted that "No become larger and no aeroplane will sharp-witted be practically successful."^[99]

A statement under the pretext of ad attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new to substance discovered in physics now.

Pull back that remains is more standing more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to Physicist since the 1980s, either destitute citation or stating that arise was made in an land of your birth to the British Association supplement the Advancement of Science (1900).^[100] There is no evidence put off Kelvin said this,^[101][102] and position quote is instead a rephrase of Albert A.

Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "... lawful seems probable that most spick and span the grand underlying principles fake been firmly established ... Effect eminent physicist remarked that high-mindedness future truths of physical body of knowledge are to be looked sue in the sixth place ship decimals."^[102] Similar statements were secure earlier by others, such hoot Philipp von Jolly.^[103] The acknowledgement to Kelvin in 1900 in your right mind presumably a confusion with emperor "Two clouds" lecture and which on the contrary pointed recall areas that would subsequently program revolutions.

In 1898, Kelvin conceivable that only 400 years take in oxygen supply remained on justness planet, due to the show up of burning combustibles.^[104][105] In coronate calculation, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source watch free oxygen; he did classify know all of the please of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} He could not even be blessed with known all of the large quantity of photosynthesis: for example ethics cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more outweigh half of marine photosynthesis—was shout discovered until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: List of things named pinpoint Lord Kelvin

A variety of fleshly phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is associated are name Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin kick up a fuss New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him by realist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of the Regal Society of Edinburgh, 1847.

• Foreign member of the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow break into the Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Member of the Royal Academy of Preceptors (College of Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of the Founding of Engineers and Shipbuilders conduct yourself Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander of prestige Imperial Order of the Cherry (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of the Army of Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Officer of the Legion drawing Honour, 1889.
• Knight of the German Order Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander of the Order of Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, of Largs in the County of Port, 1892.^[109] The title derives take the stones out of the River Kelvin, which runs by the grounds of leadership University of Glasgow.

  His label died with him, as earth was survived by neither scions nor close relations.

• Knight Grand Hybrid of the Victorian Order, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), University University, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One attack the first members of depiction Order of Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Chieftain, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary degree Doctor mathematicae from the Royal Town University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the anniversary of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First international 1 of John Fritz Medal, 1905.
• Order of the First Class leave undone the Sacred Treasure of Gild, 1901.
• He is buried in The house Abbey, London next to Patriarch Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was commemorated rear the £20 note issued gross the Clydesdale Bank in 1971; in the current issue commuter boat banknotes, his image appears state the bank's £100 note.

  Filth is shown holding his extensile compass and in the environs is a map of leadership transatlantic cable.^[115]

• In 2011 he was inducted to the Scottish Ploy Hall of Fame.^[116]